Computer Repair Checklist - Before You Call

By Ben Nystrom

Five years ago, consumers having computer problems were more likely to go out and purchase a new PC or laptop rather than seek out a computer repair service to fix the issue. Times have changed. Consumers either don't have the extra cash they once did for upgrading computer systems or they are leery of their own financial future and therefore are holding onto extra cash until times are better.

This has resulted in a surge in work for computer repair shops.

This also has resulted in a surge of phone calls and home visits with computer users who believe they have a major computer problem but really have simple, easily overlooked issues that they can fix themselves.

Before calling a local computer repair expert, it is a good idea to ensure your computer's problem isn't caused by an overlooked user error. So many laptop and PC owners forget to do some initial assessing before calling in reinforcements.

A few things to check before you call in a computer IT professional are provided as a helpful checklist to computer users everywhere:

- Power Source: Did your laptop or PC shut down or turned itself off? If you're using a laptop, the battery may have died and simply needs to be recharged. If you have a desktop, you may have accidently kicked out the power cord. Check all cords to make sure they are properly connected and try to start your computer.

- Reboot: Is your computer frozen or not allowing you to run certain programs? Try restarting (rebooting) it. If you can't reboot from the desktop, look for a restart button on the computer, usually located on the sides, above the keyword or in the back. NOTE: you may lose your most recently entered data if you force a reboot; it pays to save often.

- Virus Check: Are your browsers or software programs turning themselves on and off randomly? This could indicate a spyware or virus problem. Run a virus check on your operating system using anti-virus software (several options are available to home and office users).

- Slow Performance: Is your system simply running poorly? Consider updating your software applications. Old programs can cause your entire system to run slow. Most operating systems when connected to the internet will send you notices when a new software update is available. If that isn't the case for your computer, you can go to a software company's website and download updates from there. If you don't have internet access, you will need to go to a computer supply store and buy software update packages in person.

- Slower Performance: Are you still experiencing slow performance? You may need to evaluate your system and do some clean-up. If you have a lot of large data files like pictures, music, or videos, they could be sucking up your computer's memory and slowing up the overall process. Erasing old files you don't need any more or saving them to an external hard drive will bring your computer back up to speed. If you have a lot of programs installed on your laptop that you don't need, remove them also to free up disk space and allow your system to run more smoothly.

If you've gone through this checklist and continue to have problems, then pick up the phone and call an IT help desk or local computer repair service. Some IT services will even provide a free consultation visit to evaluate the problem before they commit to making any fixes. In this way, you can avoid any fees should the problem be something simple that you may have overlooked.

~Ben Nystrom, 2009

Having a helpful computer IT service available 24/7 for network and individual system troubleshooting is invaluable for a small business. Find out what additional support Beaverton computer repair and IT services company, Ascensha, can do for you.

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Sun Done?

By Guy Smith

I wonder what antitrust agency lawyers will make of Oracle's acquisition of Sun. Not that it matters much as Larry Ellison has slain that dragon before. Rumor has it the heads of three lawyers are mounted on the wall of Ellison's office (knew I liked Larry for a reason).

The database market is tiny when measured by the number of serious competitors. Oracle is the king of the enterprise database server beasts while IBM's DB2 or Microsoft's SQL Server holds a tenuous second places (depending on whose measure you use, the common analyst measures being revenues, installations, recent developer involvement, moon phases or the pattern of chicken bones tossed into a fire pit). Microsoft's SQL Server has its adherents, but that is largely out of religion for Windows not over-arching trends. Also-rans like Ingress, Sybase and others have receded into obscurity. For enterprise database technology, this is a seriously contracted market and one that would cause any government lawyer to skip their triple martini lunches.

Now Larry is buying the bottom of the market.

In Sun he also gets MySQL, the Open Source competitor for which Sun overpaid. MySQL not only has absconded with nearly the entire low end of the market (a sector where Oracle never made money nor marketed their wares with any real intent), but it is eating most of the middle ground as well. When I talk to CTOs and ask them about non-mission critical applications, they contentedly use MySQL and forgo the expense of establishing another Oracle instance.

That has to annoy Ellison no end (knew I liked MySQL for a reason).

In buying Sun, Oracle is significantly consolidating the entire database market, and demonstrably the enterprise database market. Granted MySQL's Open Source nature means Oracle doesn't really control it at all. Larry can't kill it off on a whim. Yet Oracle can influence its growth, support and overall market viability. Oracle can affect MySQL's future.

More to the point, the government simply does not like one corporation owning a wide or deep part of any market, and now Oracle has both. It has width - covering one half of the enterprise database market (if you consider Microsoft's SQL Server an enterprise solution) and it has depth now owning - for practical purposes - the bottom and middle via MySQL. Using rough estimates of penetration, we can visualize what most of us instinctively know about this merger - that the number of alternative providers in the market is suddenly smaller.

Ignoring for a moment MySQL and the steam venting from Steve Ballmer's ears this morning, the other parts of Sun are equally interesting, both from a market and an antitrust standpoint. Like MySQL, Java is Open Source. But Oracle has a vested interest in Java given the architecture of Fusion and derivatives. With Oracle dominating the enterprise application market and competitors depending heavily on Java for their applications, there is an inherent competitive advantage for Oracle to control the fate of Java. Again, being Open Source, Larry can instigate only limited intrigue, but there is enough leverage to make trouble for his foes.

Despite the potential for using SPARC's massive multi-threading chip to create a monster database engine, I cannot seriously believe Oracle wants to get into the server hardware business. X86 architectures are the new norm and if today's VMWare introduction of vSphere 4 is an indication, the cloud is the new mainframe, making SPARC's minor advantage irrelevant.

Finally, there is StorageTek, another outfit Sun bled too much cash for (was Jonathan Schwartz secretly on a buying spree for Larry?). All data needs backup, but storage is a highly competitive arena and Oracle prefers fat software margins over skinny and shrinking hardware margins. Spinning off StorageTek is highly likely though who the buyer might be is unclear. Perhaps Oracle will do with StorageTek what EMC did with VMWare and create a beast with two backs.

Regardless, we can expect the Fed's to get deeply involved and for Ellison to crush them. Owning control over MySQL and Java are juicy enough for him to play hardball (as if he knows any other way). All this time I worried about the technology business being commoditized. I should have been worried about Oracle swallowing it whole.

Guy Smith is the chief consultant for Silicon Strategies Marketing. Guy brings a combination of technical, managerial and marketing experience to Silicon Strategies projects. Directly and as a consultant, Guy has worked with a variety of technology-producing organizations. A partial list of these technology firms include DeviceAnywhere (mobile applications), ORBiT Group (high-availability backup software), Telamon (wireless middleware), Wink Communications (interactive television), LogMeIn (remote desktop), FundNET (SaaS), DeviceAnywhere (mobile applications), Open-Xchange (groupware), VA Software (enterprise software), Virtual Iron (server virtualization), SUSE (Linux distributions and applications), BrainWave (application prototyping) and Novell. http://www.SiliconStrat.com

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Limited Liability Corporations

By Amy McDaniel

A limited liability corporation is what many refer to when they are inquiring about the LLC. An LLC offers small business owners the same benefits of a corporation plus more. Compare the two here:

LIMITED LIABILITY

Many business owners are trying to decide between an LLC and a corporation. Both offer owners of the business limited liability. Corporation entities, however, are required to hold certain meetings and maintain paperwork formalities. The LLC offers the ability to run a business without additional formalities.

OWNERSHIP

The limited liability company issues membership units and its owners are called members. The corporation issues shares of stock and the owners are called shareholders. In most cases, both types provide a similar ownership structure. The difference is that the LLC allows a lot more flexibility if the owners of the business wanted to customize their ownership rights and obligations among members.

This flexibility is attractive to small businesses because it allows a business to be operated based on the circumstances of the personalities and desires of the particular business owners and not under a one size fits all structure mandated by the laws. For example, two members can own the same number of units, but one of them can get more profits than the other.

GOVERNANCE

Traditionally, while corporate statutes have explicit provisions regarding limited liability, corporation shareholders are generally required to hold an annual meeting and elect a Board of Directors each year. The Board is responsible for management of the business while shareholders in their capacity as shareholders have no such authority.

The limited liability company offers an option for a manager managed governance structure which is a similar centralized management structure as the corporation. Instead of a Board of Directors, the governing body is called the Board of Managers. The LLC statutes do not require annual meetings and elections and allow for the company to make its own rules in how and how often managers are elected.

In addition, a limited liability corporation can have a much simpler structure and have its members all be managers and operators of the business. This is a member managed structure. This gets rid of the central and second level which provides for less paperwork and governance maintenance. The downside here is that you must trust all members as they will each have authority to act on behalf of the business.

TAXATION

A huge benefit of an LLC is that it automatically qualifies for a single layer of taxation (called pass through taxation) without requiring the business or its owners to meet any conditions or requirements.

The corporation's default structure results in double taxation which can have a major impact on the bottom line profits. The LLC also allows for it to elect to be taxed as a corporation which is nice because it offers the option. In some cases, it may be more beneficial to have a corporation structure. Check with your accountant.

Both the limited liability company and the corporation allow for the business to elect S corporation taxation if the owners of the business and the business itself meet the laundry list of S corporation requirements. S corporation taxation is another form of pass through similar to what the LLC gets automatically.

In summary, the LLC offers more tax options than the corporation which provides business owners with more choices to choose which is most advantageous to their business.

OTHER

Fees for corporations can sometimes be based on the # of shares and so if you plan on having a large number, your fees could be significant. LLC maintenance fees are usually minimal in most states (there are exceptions) and do not vary with the number of membership units issues.

If your business plans on going public, you must be a corporation as there is not method to sell membership units on NASDAQ or the NYSE yet. Also, if you plan on raising capital by taking in a venture capital investor, the investor will likely require you be a corporation.

Otherwise, the LLC usually offers the typical small business owner with the most benefits and the easiest type of legal entity to operate. Both offer limited liability. Corporation entities require a bit more when it comes to starting, structuring and operating a business.

For a FREE LLC Guide or to access an extensive FAQ knowledge base about the limited liability corporation, visit The LLC Expert: http://www.TheLLCExpert.com

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Wi-Fi Spectrum Analyzers : Optimally Configure and Troubleshoot 802.11 Wireless Networks

By Steve Leytus

Wi-Fi wireless networks have grown in popularity in recent years and are found ubiquitously in business, industry and the home. Wi-Fi networks operate in the 2.4 GHz Industry, Scientific, Medical (ISM) band - a public band that is unlicensed by the FCC. Many types of wireless devices compete for air space in the 2.4 GHz ISM band - and this introduces interference that negatively impacts the performance of a wireless network. A 2.4 GHz spectrum analyzer is the tool of choice for detecting and identifying sources of interference and providing information that allows optimal configuration of a Wi-Fi network.

Overview

With wireless systems it is very difficult to predict the propagation of radio waves and detect the presence of interfering signals without the use of test equipment. Radio waves don't travel the same distance in all directions - instead walls, doors, elevator shafts, people, and other obstacles offer varying degrees of attenuation, which cause the Radio Frequency (RF) radiation pattern to be irregular and unpredictable. In order to achieve optimal reliability and throughput for your Wi-Fi ( 802.11) wireless network it is necessary to detect and identify sources of interference that impact negatively on its performance.

There are a multitude of electronic devices that transmit RF energy into the airspace. Wi-Fi (802.11 b/g) operates in the 2.4 GHz Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band. This particular range of frequencies (2.401 GHz through 2.473 GHz) is public and its use does not require licensing by the FCC. As a result, this band tends to get rather crowded – not only with 802.11 devices but also microwaves, bluetooth devices, cordless phones, baby monitors, audio/video senders, wireless cameras, etc.

Professional installers of wireless computer networks attempt to optimize their client’s Wi-Fi network by strategically choosing a subset of the 2.4 GHz band for use by their wireless network devices. The 2.4 GHz range of 2.401 – 2.473 GHz is separated into 11, 22 MHz channels. Note that 2.473GHz – 2.401GHz = 72 MHz, yet 11 times 22 MHz is 242 MHz. So, how does 242 MHz fit into 72 MHz? Answer – the channels overlap. An installer can configure the wireless router or access point (AP) to use channel 6, and then all data communication will occur over the range of frequencies associated with channel 6 (i.e. 2.426 GHz – 2.448 GHz). But if other wireless devices (802.11 or non-802.11) are also transmitting over this range of frequencies then your wireless network will suffer. So, when installing a wireless network or troubleshooting a poorly performing one, it is important to choose a channel that is not subject to interference from other devices – i.e. you don’t want your wireless network to compete with other devices for the same range of frequencies.

Wi-Fi Diagnostic Tools

There are two categories or types of tools that are available for helping you choose the best Wi-Fi channel for your wireless network - WiFi Scanners (i.e. 802.11 discovery tools) and 2.4 GHz Spectrum Analyzers:

Wi-Fi scanner or 802.11 (WLAN) discovery utility. The best known in this category is NetStumbler (http://www.netstumbler.com/) . The discovery tool will report the Service Set Identifier (SSID) for each access point (AP) it detects, along with the channel used by the AP. The way this works is that roughly every 100 mSec an AP sends an “I’m here” beacon – and the discovery tool (running on your laptop and using its 802.11 wireless adapter) picks up that beacon and adds the SSID to its list. In addition, the discovery utility may report the SNR (signal-to-noise) ratio for each AP, which is approximately an indication of how close the AP is to your current location. Though this is useful information, it doesn’t tell you anything about non-802.11 devices or even how busy the APs are. That is, your laptop could be sitting next to a microwave oven, sending all kinds of RF energy into the room, and the discovery tool would be clueless to its existence. The discovery tool only knows about 802.11 devices – that is, devices that transmit RF energy according to the 802.11 protocol - and can not see non-802.11 transmissions. Here’s an analogy – you’re in a large auditorium and you hear someone across the room occasionally yell out “Hello, I’m Joe!”. Joe is an access point and he occasionally sends a beacon to let whoever is out there know that he’s there. It might be that Joe is really busy and talking with many people or he might be by himself. Or there might be a lot of noise in the auditorium that would make it difficult to carry on a conversation with Joe from a distance. The discovery tool can’t help you with that – it only hears Joe’s occasional beacon “Hello, I’m Joe!”.

2.4 GHz Spectrum Analyzer. This is the instrument of choice for detecting and identifying sources of RF interference. Spectrum analyzers are a basic tool used for observing radio frequency (RF) signals – they give you a better picture of the RF environment to help identify and find devices interfering with your Wireless LAN (WLAN). Typically they’ll employ a 2-dimensional display where the vertical axis (Y-axis) represents the magnitude of a signal and the horizontal axis (X-axis) represents the frequency of a signal. Dedicated hardware spectrum analyzers can run into the tens of thousands of dollars (they employ many arrays of analog-to-digital converters). Recently, PC-based analyzers have appeared on the market. Yet they are also fairly expensive – in the neighborhood of $4000. AirSleuth is an affordable 2.4 GHz spectrum analyzer available from Nuts About Nets, LLC that displays RF data in a variety of diagnostic views that help you detect the presence of interfering devices and then choose the best channel for your wireless network.

Examples
In each figure there are 3 items to take note of:

a. The maximum value on the Y-axis

b. The horizontal white lines that denote the boundaries of the 11, overlapping 802.11 channels

c. The location (i.e. frequency) and height (relative signal strength) of the major RF peaks

Figure 1. In this figure the horizontal white lines show the boundaries of the 11, 22 MHz channels in the 2.4 GHz band. Notice how adjacent channels overlap with one another.

Figure 2. The air space is relatively quiet and there are no wireless devices transmitting in the 2.4 GHz band. Notice the maximum value on the Y-axis is ‘3.0’ Relative Signal Strength units – this is small. The reason you see peaks (and the output isn’t totally flat) is the display employs automatic scaling, such that the largest peak (regardless of how small it really is) will fill-up the screen. We know this is what background noise looks like because the maximum value on the Y-axis is < 10.0.

Figure 3. A microwave oven is running. Here you can see that it emits RF energy across the entire 2.4 GHz band.

Figure 4. A 2.4 GHz cordless phone has been powered on. Notice the height of the peak in the vicinity of channel 1 is around ‘140’ units and the peak in the vicinity of channel 11 is around ‘110’ units. These are strong enough to knock-out wireless networks configured to use either channel 1 or channel 11. In addition, because of the way that channels overlap the first peak would probably also interfere with a wireless network using channel 2, and the second peak would also interfere with wireless networks using channels 9 or 10.

Figure 5. Shows the pattern of activity from a wireless network (configured to use channel 6) as it is actively transmitting a large stream of data.

Steve Leytus is a senior software engineer and develops applications for NutsAboutNets.com. For more information about AirSleuth 2.4 GHz Spectrum Analyzer and other low cost, PC-based diagnostic tools for installing, optimizing and trouble-shooting 802.11 (Wi-Fi) wireless networks please visit http://www.NutsAboutNets.com

Satire: How to Increase Your Wi-Fi Signal

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Making Life Easier For Any Computer Technician - The KVM Switch

By Abe Arceo

I work as an IT specialist at a University, and I'll have about 6 or 7 computers back at my tech shop on a weekly basis that needs to be repaired. From installing or replacing hard drives or other hardware, to cleaning out viruses and spyware, I always seem to have a computer to work on at my shop.

There are plenty of times where I have to work on multiple computers at once. Sometimes it could be for one of the previously mentioned issues, or the fact that I have new shipments of computers that have to be setup for users. No matter what the case, space is a premium, and it would not be logical to have a separate monitor, keyboard, and mouse setup for each computer I have to work on in our tech shop.

To help me fight through my weekly cache of computers that I need to repair or setup, without taking up several offices or cube spaces, a keyboard, video, and mouse (KVM) switch has proven to be a useful tool I couldn't work without. Its functionality, along with its ease of use, has made daily computer repairs much quicker and efficient. A KVM switch allows you to connect one keyboard, one monitor, and one mouse to a little switch box, which then has ports to connect multiple computers. Older KVM switches only had a vga and PS2 connectors, but newer KVM switches come equipped with a vga and USB connections.

My current KVM switch supports up to 8 computers. The computer that sits at the first slot is my ghost server, which I use to push out ghost images or create backup images. Slots 2 through 8 are free to be hooked up to any computer that needs to be repaired, cleaned, or setup. With this current setup, I can now house all of the computers on a 4 layer shelving system, which helps save on space as each shelf can hold 3 computers.

For me, the best setup I found was to sit the KVM switch on the top shelf, and run the cables down to all of the shelves below it. This allows for easy access to the proper cables as well as quick hook ups. I am constantly rotating computers in and out of my shop, so easy access to the computers and the cables is a must.

The KVM allows me to perform multiple repair or cleaning projects, as I can quickly switch between 8 different computers as I need to. As an example, I can run windows updates on one computer, then switch over to a second computer to check for spyware and viruses, while the scans are running I can switch over to a third computer to create a backup image, and finally switch over to the first computer to connect the ghost server to the client that wishes to create a backup image. I can perform all of those tasks within minute, all while using the same monitor, keyboard, and mouse, all at the same desk.

For computer technicians that find themselves working on multiple computers through the week, and even more importantly, need to work on multiple computers at the same time, a KVM switch is an important and useful tool. Smaller shops can get KVM switches that have only 2 or 4 computer connections, where as bigger shops can get KVM switches that allow 8 or 16 computer connections. Each computer technician will have different needs, but no matter what your workload looks like, a KVM switch will help streamline your work queue as well as make your life a little easier. And as computer technicians, anything that makes things easier is always welcomed!

Abe Arceo is the Baltimore Handheld Examiner. You can view his articles at http://www.examiner.com/x-8840-Baltimore-Handheld-Examiner

Abe is also the owner of Video Game Ninja blog at http://video-game-ninja.blogspot.com

For both the Examiner and Video Game Ninja, Abe covers the latest news, info, and reviews on today's video games, tech, and gadgets.

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The Employee or Independent Contractor Scam

By Jack Payne

You've got some spare hours and want to earn some extra income. You get an offer to become an "Executive Assistant" in an aluminum siding company. You visit their representative, and look over their literature, handsome colored brochures which proclaim opportunity, opportunity, and more opportunity. But, nowhere are benefit packages mentioned, the usual, medical, vacation, sick leave, termination pay--nothing of this in writing. But, the rep speaks lavishly of these "benefits." You are impressed, join the team, find you are only to collect commissions for selling aluminum siding, work a few weeks, get disgusted and quit.

When you go back to collect your pay, you are told that you were never an employee, but an independent contractor, and delay excuses are made for not having your limited earnings available yet. You wait. Next time you try to contact them, you find the tent has been pulled and the company is gone. This is a pattern that is practiced repeatedly, and with much success, by con men everywhere.

Why this pattern?

Because it enables them "cover," a means by which they can hide behind an advantage to them, a differentiation problem that the politicians are too cowardly to solve.

Congress has punted on this due to the difficulty of precise language and because, generally, employers everywhere want to keep the language vague so as to give them more maneuvering room in taking on additional help. These companies assert lobbying pressure against precise language. Some states have laws, but mostly subject to interpretation all over the map. End result? You are caught in the middle.

Only the IRS has rules covering this debate, the exact nature of which are unknown, but as a general rule run something along this line:

To qualify for independent contractor status a company must not provide any tools to work with. Example: when you call a plumber to come fix your sink, he brings his own pipe wrench. You do not provide this for him. You can only supply merchandise which will be used up in the process of the job, e.g. tissues to wipe down the plumber's tools while he is working. The company may not specify work hours. That must be left up to the independent contractor, like the plumber. No other form of guidance may be exercised. You, as the customer, have engaged the plumber to attain a desired result, a workable sink, that's all. The means of getting this desired result must be left up to him. And, importantly, the independent contractor must not be provided work facilities on a regular basis. This is yet another separation criteria in determining, is this person an employee or an independent contractor? To top off: an independent contractor submits invoices for services (he works for others beside you). And, employees do not submit invoices.

So how do you protect yourself against these charlatans?

Ask them to write down the work "benefits" they offer, maybe because you wish to ponder them, and / or, talk them over with family and friends.

Have them clarify, in writing, the status of an "Executive Assistant" as opposed to Sales Representative.

Ask for a list of references from satisfied customers. Ask for bank references.

You won't have to go much further than this. If these simple requests are filled for you, this opportunity might be worth further pursuit.

If not, well, you've saved yourself a lot of time, effort. And, needless frustration.

Jack Payne is the author of the legal thriller, Six Hours Past Thursday, a fictional book about real legal scams. For more information visit http://www.sixhrs.com

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Avoid Common Business Insurance Mistakes

By Terence R. Collins

Business owners work hard to grow their enterprises, investing countless hours, intense labor and careful attention to assure success. Yet many overlook one of the most basic components in securing their business' long-term viability: adequate, appropriate business insurance.

When it comes to insurance, business owners make some common, potentially terminal, mistakes that may be remedied easily with a little knowledge and guidance.

Setting limits too low. Business owners often don't understand that once you pay for an initial policy, extra coverage costs only slightly more. In some cases, you can actually double your limits for only 10 percent more in premiums.

Not reading policies. Insurance policies can be intimidating, containing as much legal jargon as virtually any business contract you'll ever see. If you don't want to read or cannot understand the policy, ask an attorney or financial adviser who is well-versed in insurance. And do it before you purchase it. Afterwards, it's too late.

Misunderstanding duties to defend or indemnify. Every business owner's policy addresses these two issues, often in different ways. When purchasing a policy, you need to know whether your insurer will defend you if you get sued. You also need to know whether your insurer will pay--and to what limit--if there is a judgment against you.

Buying the wrong type of insurance. Casualty and liability are the two basic types of insurance that virtually all business owners need. Casualty will cover a business's own losses arising from sudden, unexpected events, such as an accident, and liability will protect you from the losses of others who claim their loss was your fault. Most business owner policies will provide both casualty and liability coverage, but you need to understand the variables within those two categories. Some provide pollution coverage or protection from advertising injury or completed contracts; some don't.

Eighty percent of businesses will find that business owner policies cover their needs sufficiently, but if you have a specialty business of some kind, your needs may differ. Also, if your business puts out products in any way--as a designer, manufacturer, distributor, retailer, etc.--you will need product liability insurance as well.

Overlooking business interruption insurance. If something happens to your business--a flood or fire, for example--you may have insurance to rebuild your business, but if the business has no income in the meantime, you may have to shut down permanently anyway. Business interruption insurance can cover overhead and other expenses while your business is out of commission.

With all the variables in industries, businesses and policies, your best bet to avoid insurance mistakes is to get help from a knowledgeable expert. Many trade associations offer advice and even insurance policies especially suited for their industries. You can also talk to a reputable insurance agency--one that your business counterparts or competitors use. And if you're in a specialty business, seek a specialty agent. Finally, look at ratings. Companies, like Standard & Poore's and A.M. Best, among others, assess the financial strength of insurance companies and their ability to pay. Much of the information is available online.

It's important to take your time in choosing insurance companies and policies. Approach the decision with the same prudence and thoroughness you would employ if you were borrowing money. Your business may be one-of-a-kind, but just like the seven million other small businesses in the United States, one lawsuit or disaster could mean the end. Having the right business insurance can make all the difference.

Originally published in The Business News.

Terence R. Collins is an attorney with Johns, Flaherty & Collins, SC, (http://www.johnsflaherty.com), a full-service law firm based in La Crosse, Wis. According to the Martindale-Hubbell Law Directory, Johns, Flaherty & Collins, SC, has more top-rated lawyers than any other La Crosse law firm.

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CCNA 640-802 Prep - Understanding IP Network Addressing - Exam Preparation Tutorial

By Harris Andrea

Since Cisco Certifications are always hot and the Cisco CCNA is the most popular from all, I decided to start a series of articles regarding important topics that you need to be prepared for passing the CCNA 640-802 composite exam. These topics will be also useful for people taking the two-exam option (ICND1 640-822 and ICND2 640-816).

The CCNA exam will test your ability to understand the Internet Layer of the TCP/IP model, and specifically you must be able to describe the components and structure of an IPv4 address, compare public and private addresses, differentiate between the classes of IP addresses, define the function of DHCP and DNS in IP addressing etc. So let's see some important concepts below:

-- Each internet network host (computer, router, server etc) has its own unique IP address to communicate with other hosts. It is like the unique postal address of our home. There are two versions of IP addresses available. IPv4 and IPv6. The IP version 4 type is the most common today but in the future the IP version 6 will dominate. IPv4 is a 32-bit address and IPv6 is 128-bit address.

-- IP addresses can be assigned to hosts either manually or dynamically. Dynamic assignment uses the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).

-- The purpose of DNS is so resolve domain names to IP addresses.

-- An IPv4 address (32 bits) is broken into 4 sections with 8 bits each. Although the IP address is a binary number, we represent it into decimal notation.

-- An IP address (IPv4) consists of the Network ID (leftmost or high-order bits) and the Host ID (rightmost or low-order bits). The subnet mask specifies what is the Network ID and what is the Host ID. For example an IP address 192.168.10.20 with subnet mask 255.255.255.0 specifies that the Network ID is 192.168.10 and the Host ID is 20. Also, an IP address 10.1.2.30 with subnet mask 255.255.0.0 specifies that the Network ID is 10.1 and the Host ID is 2.30. You get the point now.

-- We have public and private IP addresses. Public addresses are always unique but private addresses can be reused in private LAN networks. The Private addresses are within the following ranges:

• 10.0.0.0 through 10.255.255.255


• 172.16.0.0 through 172.31.255.255


• 192.168.0.0 through 192.168.255.255

-- As the number of networks grew, the IP addresses were broken into categories called classes to accommodate different sizes of networks. We have five classes of IP addresses. Class A, B, C, D, E.

-- Any address that starts with a value between 1 and 126 in the first decimal octet is a Class A address. E.g 10.1.2.24 is a Class A address.

-- Any address that starts with a value in the range of 128 to 191 in the first octet is a Class B address. E.g 172.16.1.27 is a Class B address.

-- Any address that starts with a value in the range of 192 to 223 in the first octet, it is a Class C address. E.g 192.168.5.1 is a Class C address.

-- An IP address that starts with a value in the range of 224 to 239 in the first octet is a Class D address. Class D address range is used for multicasting. E.g 224.0.0.1

-- Any address that starts with a value between 240 to 255 is a Class E address. These addresses are reserved and not used anywhere.

Harris Andrea is a Cisco Certified Professional (CCNA, CCNP, CCSP) with more than 10 years experience in the networking field. He is currently employed as a senior network engineer in a leading ISP company.

Harris recommends the following CCNA Video Training package to pass your CCNA exam Guaranteed (You can watch also a Demo Video).

Check out his website Cisco Tips and Tutorials to find out what is the best way to study for your Cisco CCNA Certification.

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